THE CHALLENGES OF IMPLEMENTING PEACE EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN MIDDLE EAST ARAB STATES
Keywords:
Peace education programmes, Teaching, Violent discourses, School challenges
Abstract
This paper discusses the challenges and dilemmas faced in establishing peace education programmes in Middle East Arab states, and considers the prospects of finding approaches for overcoming these issues. It discusses the importance of introducing peace education as a means to establishing peace locally and promoting it globally. In particular, resolving contemporary conflicts needs more local involvement not only in finding solutions but also in taking responsibility for their effective implementation, especially so considering the increasing involvement of international – largely Western – organisations as facilitators and supporters of peace education. Furthermore, not only should education be understood as a process that includes decision-making, policies for designing curricula and their contents, and implementation, but a critical approach within education is needed to encourage more fruitful outcomes while solutions need to be broader and more inclusive, incorporating the multi-ethnic structure of the society affected. It considers the importance of religion, emphasising the need to exploit its ability to provide peace-orientated discourses. Lastly, the paper critiques the relationship between Western and Muslim Arab states regarding their approaches to education and knowledge, and considers its implications for peace education and the need to generate local knowledge relevant to peace education that positively reflects Muslim culture.
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References
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Allport, G. W. (1954, 1975, 1979). The Nature of Prejudice. Reading, MA: Perseus.
Apple, M. (1990). Ideology and Curriculum. 2nd edn. New York: Routledge.
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Appleby, Scott R., (2000). The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Ardizzone, L. (2002). Towards Global Understanding: The Transformative Role of Peace Education. Current Issues in Comparative Education (4)2, 16-25.
Bandura, A. (1973). Social learning theory of aggression. In J. F. Knutson (Ed.). The control of aggression: Implications from basic research (pp. 201–250). Chicago: Aldine.
Bar-On, D. and Adwan, S. (2006). The Psychology of Better Dialogue between Two Separate but Independent Narratives. In R. I. Rotberg (Ed.). Israeli and Palestinian narratives of conflict: History’s double helix (pp. 205-224). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Bar-Tal, D. (1998). The rocky road toward peace: Beliefs on conflict in Israeli textbooks. Journal of Peace Research, 35, 723–742.
Bar-Tal, D. and Yigal, R. (2009). Condition for development of peace education in intractable conflict: Direct and Indirect Models. Review of Educational Research, 79, 2, 557–575.
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Eisen, R. (2011). The Peace and Violence of Judaism: From the Bible to Modern Zion. New York: Oxford University Press.
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El-Baz, F. (2009). Reform in Arab Countries: the Role of Education. The Journal of Education, 188, 3.
Ellens J. H. (Ed.) (2007). The Destructive Power of Religion: Violence in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
Fandy, M. (2007). Enriched Islam: the Muslim Crisis of Education. Survival, 49, 2.
Firer, R. (2002). The Gordian knot between peace education and war education. In Salomon, G. and Nevo, B. Peace Education: The Concept, Principles, and Practices Around the World. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Foucault, M. (1980). Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972–1977. London: Harvester Press.
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Fox, J. (1999). The Influence of Religious Legitimacy on Grievance Formation by Ethno-Religious Minorities. Journal of Peace Research, 36, 3, 289–307.
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: The Continuum International Publishing Group, Inc.
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Gopin, M., (2000). Between Eden and Armageddon: the Future of World Religions, Violence, and Peacemaking. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Al-Barakat, A. A. & Al-Karasneh, S. M. (2005). The contribution of school textbooks in the early grades of education in preparing young children to become effective citizens: teacher perspective. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 3, 2, 169-91.
Al-Kubaisi, Y. (2012). A journey of learning: The curriculum in Iraqi schools and higher education. In Brunskell-Evans, H. and M. Moore (Eds.). Re-imagining research for reclaiming the academy in Iraq: Identities and participation in post-conflict enquiry (pp.53-63). The Iraq Research Fellowship Programme. Rotterdam: Sense.
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Appleby, R. S. (2000). The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence and Reconciliation. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
Appleby, R. S. (2006). Building sustainable peace: the roles of local and transnational religious actors. Paper presented at the Conference on New Religious Pluralism in World Politics, Georgetown University, Washington, DC.
Appleby, Scott R., (2000). The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Ardizzone, L. (2002). Towards Global Understanding: The Transformative Role of Peace Education. Current Issues in Comparative Education (4)2, 16-25.
Bandura, A. (1973). Social learning theory of aggression. In J. F. Knutson (Ed.). The control of aggression: Implications from basic research (pp. 201–250). Chicago: Aldine.
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Bar-Tal, D. (1998). The rocky road toward peace: Beliefs on conflict in Israeli textbooks. Journal of Peace Research, 35, 723–742.
Bar-Tal, D. and Yigal, R. (2009). Condition for development of peace education in intractable conflict: Direct and Indirect Models. Review of Educational Research, 79, 2, 557–575.
Bennett, M., (1993). Towards Ethnorelativism: A Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity. In Michael Paige (Ed.) Education for the Intercultural Experience (pp. 20–72). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
Bennett, Milton, (1986).Towards Ethnorelativism: A Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity. In Paige M. (Ed.) Cross-Cultural Orientation: New Conceptualizations and Applications (pp. 27–71). New York: University Press of America.
Bickmore, K. (2008). Peace and conflict education. In Arthur J., Davies I. and Hahn C. (Eds.) The sage handbook of education for citizenship and democracy (pp. 438-454). Los Angeles: Sage.
Bijlsma, S. (2009) ‘Teaching history: Looking for unity in Rwanda`s classrooms’. In Opportunities for change. Education innovation and reform during and after conflict. ed. by Nicolai, S. Paris, France: UNESCO, 218–229.
Bjerstedt, A. (1993). Peace education in schools around the world at the beginning of the 1990s. In Bjerstedt, A. (Ed.) Peace education: Global perspectives (pp. 146–169) . Stockholm, Sweden: Almqvist and Wiksell International.
Blaker, K., Buckner, E. M., Kagin, E. F., Kirkhart, B. (2003). The Fundamentals of Extremism: The Christian Right in America. New Boston Books.
Brislin, R., Dan L. & Mary, E. B. (1983). Conceptualizations of Intercultural Behavior and Training. In Dan Landis and Richard Brislin, (Eds.) Handbook of Intercultural Training (pp. 1–36). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon.
Bush K. D. & Saltarelli D. (2000). The Two Faces of Education in Ethnic Conflict: Towards a peacebuilding education for children. UNICEF.
Cederman, L-E., Wimmer, A. and Min, B. (2010). Why Do Ethnic Groups Rebel? New Data and Analysis. World Politics, 62, 1, 87-119.
Cederman, L-E., Skrede Gleditsch, K. & Buhaug, H. (2013). Inequality, Grievances and Civil War. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Cole, E. (ed.) (2007) Teaching the Violent Past History Education and Reconciliation. Rowman and Littlefield Publishers Inc.
Cole, E. and Barsalou, J. (2006) Unite or Divide? The Challenges of Teaching History in Societies Emerging from Violent Conflict. United State Institute of Peace (USIP) Special Report.
Danesh, H. B. (2006). Towards an integrative theory of peace education. Journal of Peace Education, 3, 1, 55-78.
Darling, D. (2004). Special Analysis: The 12/04 Bin Laden Tapes. Winds of Change. Retrieved November 11, 2014, from http://www.windsofchange.net/archives/006101.html
Davies, L. (2004). Building a civic culture post‐conflict. Review of Education, 2, 3, 229‐244.
Dewey, J. (1990) The School and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Doumato, E. A. & Starrett, R. G. (Eds.) (2007). Teaching Islam: Textbooks and Religion in the Middle East. Boulder, Colo: Lynne Rienner.
Eisen, R. (2011). The Peace and Violence of Judaism: From the Bible to Modern Zion. New York: Oxford University Press.
Eisler, R., (2000). Tomorrow’s Children. Westview, Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press.
El-Baz, F. (2009). Reform in Arab Countries: the Role of Education. The Journal of Education, 188, 3.
Ellens J. H. (Ed.) (2007). The Destructive Power of Religion: Violence in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
Fandy, M. (2007). Enriched Islam: the Muslim Crisis of Education. Survival, 49, 2.
Firer, R. (2002). The Gordian knot between peace education and war education. In Salomon, G. and Nevo, B. Peace Education: The Concept, Principles, and Practices Around the World. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Foucault, M. (1980). Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972–1977. London: Harvester Press.
Foucault, M. (1978). The History of Sexuality Vol. I. (R. Hurley trans), New York: Pantheon.
Fox, J. (1999). The Influence of Religious Legitimacy on Grievance Formation by Ethno-Religious Minorities. Journal of Peace Research, 36, 3, 289–307.
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: The Continuum International Publishing Group, Inc.
Galtung, J. (2009). Towards a Conflictology: A Quest for Trans-Disciplinarity. In Ennis Sandole, Sean Byrne, Ingrid Sandole-Staroste, and Jessica Senehi, (Eds.) Handbook of Conflict Analysis and Resolution (pp. 511-524). London: Routledge.
Giddens, A. (1997). Sociology (3rd edn). Polity Press: Cambridge.
Gopin, M. (2002). Holy War, Holy Peace: How Religion Can Bring Peace to the Middle East. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gopin, M., (2000). Between Eden and Armageddon: the Future of World Religions, Violence, and Peacemaking. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Grundmann, J. (2005). Islamist Responses to Educational Reform. ISIM Review 15.
Gudykunst, W. & Hammer, M., (1983). Basic Training Design: Approaches to Intercultural Training. In Landis Dan & Brislin, R., (Eds.) Handbook of Intercultural Training (pp. 118–155). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon
Gutek, G. L. (2006). American Education in a Global Society: International and Comparative Perspectives. Long Grove, Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc.
Habermas, J., (1972). Knowledge & Human Interests. (J. Shapiro Trans.) Beacon Press.
Hansenclever, A. & Rittberger, V. (2000). Does Religion Make a Difference? Theoretical Approaches to the Impact of Faith on Political Conflict, Millennium. Journal of International Studies, 29, 3, 641-674.
Harris, I. (1999). Types of peace education. In Raviv, A. Oppenheimer, L. and Bar-Tal, D. (Eds.) How Children Understand War and Peace (pp. 299–317). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Harris, I. & Morrison, M. (2003). Peace Education. (2nd Edn.). Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Co.
Henderson, M., (1996). The Forgiveness Factor. In Hewstone, M. and Rupert B., (Eds.). Contact and Conflict in Intergroup Encounters. Oxford and New York: Basil Blackwell.
Hicks, D. (1988). Understanding the Field in Education for Peace: Issues, Principles, and Practice in the Classroom. London: Routledge.
Huntington, S. (1996). The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Iain A., (2005). The Ethics of Peace and War. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Ignatieff, M. (2001). Human Rights as Politics and Idolatry. (The University Center for Human Values Series). Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Jabri, V. (1996). Discourses on Violence: Conflict Analysis Reconsidered. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Jenkins, P. (2007). God's Continent: Christianity, Islam, and Europe's Religious Crisis. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Johansen, R. (1997). Radical Islam and Nonviolence: A Case Study of Religious Empowerment and Constraint among Pashtuns. Journal of Peace Research 34, 1, 53–71.
Kaldor M. (1999). New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Ladson-Billings, G. (2005). The evolving role of critical race theory in educational scholarship. Race Ethnicity and Education, 8, 1, 115-119.
Lederach, J. P. (1997). Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace.
Lederach, J. P. (1999). The Journey toward Reconciliation. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press.
Leirvik, O. (2004) Religion Education, Communal Identity and National Politics in the Muslims World. British Journal of Religious Education, 26, 3, 223-236.
Lester, E. (2011). Teaching about Religious: A Democratic Approach for public schools. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Mandelbaum, M. (2002). The Ideas That Conquered the World: Peace, Democracy, and Free Markets in the Twenty-First Century. New York: Public Affairs.
Matyok, T. (2011). Peace and conflict studies, reclaiming our roots and designing our way forward. In Tom Matyok, Jessica Seheni and Sean Byrne (Eds.). Critical Issues in Peace and Conflict Studies: Theory, Practice and Pedagogy. Rowman and Littlefield (pp. 293-309).
McGlynn, C., Zembylas, M. & Bekerman Z. (Eds.) (2013). Integrated Education in Conflicted Societies. Palgrave Macmillan.
Mchoul, A. & Grace, W. (1993). A Foucault Primer: Discourse, Power and the Subject. New York: New York University Press.
Mohammed, A. M. (2016). Peace Education in Iraqi Kurdistan Schools: An Analysis of Human Rights and History Education Curriculum. PhD thesis. Coventry University, UK.
Montville, J. (1991). Track Two Diplomacy: The Arrow and the Olive Branch: A case for Track Two Diplomacy. In, V. D. Volkan M.D., J. Montville, & D. A. Julius (Eds.), The Psychodynamics of International Relations: Vol. 2. Unofficial diplomacy at work (pp.161-175). Massachusetts: Lexington Books.
Moore, D. L. (2007). Overcoming Religious Illiteracy: A Cultural Studies Approaches to the study of Religion in Secondary Education. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
Nieto, S. (2002). Language, Culture, and Teaching: Critical Perspectives for a New Century. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Paris, R. (2002). International peacebuilding and the ‘mission civilisatrice’. Review of International Studies, 28, 637–656.
Rahman, F. (1982). Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an intellectual tradition. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Ramirez-Barat, C. & Duthie, R. (2015). Education and transitional justices. Opportunities and Challenges for Peacebuilding. International Center for Transitional Justice.
Reardon, B. (1982). Militarization, Security, and Peace Education: A Guide for Concerned Citizens. Valley Forge, PA: United Ministries in Education.
Roberts-Schweitzer E., (2006). Introduction. In Roberts- Schweitzer Eluned (Ed.). Promoting Social Cohesion through Education: Case Studies and Tools for Using Textbooks and Curricula. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Said, E. (1978). Orientalism. London: Penguin Books.
Sameer, A. (2002). About Political Islam. The Way Magazine 5, 61.
Sampson, C. (1997). Religion and Peacebuilding. In Zartman W. and Rasmussen L. (Eds.), Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques (pp.273–315). Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace.
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Published
2019-08-27
How to Cite
MOHAMMED, M. A. (2019). THE CHALLENGES OF IMPLEMENTING PEACE EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN MIDDLE EAST ARAB STATES. Journal of Duhok University, 21(2), 39-62. Retrieved from https://journal.uod.ac/index.php/uodjournal/article/view/385
Section
Humanities and Social Sciences
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