COMPARISON OF HEALTHCARE AND COMMUNITY ASSOCIATED METHCILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS USING PHENOTYPIC AND MOLECULAR ASSAYS IN HOSPITALS OF DUHOK PROVINCE, IRAQ
Keywords:
HA-MRSA, CA-MRSA, mec A, pvl, lukE-lukD, arcA
Abstract
Infection of healthcare workers with methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (HA-MRSA) occurs by direct contact with infected wounds, through hand contamination from asymptomatic people or medical devices. While Community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) infections arise in healthy non-hospitalized people or in those having medical procedure within the past year. The study was conducted from April 2021 to March 2022 to determine the rates of S. aureus and MRSA isolates, their antibiotic resistance and virulence factors among 712 specimens (308 out-patients and 404 healthcare workers) of Azadi and Bedari hospitals/ Duhok province. Staphylococcus aureus isolated at rates of 28.57% and 16.83%, among out-patients and healthcare workers, respectively. Male outpatients’, and patients with ages of >40-50 years showed higher isolate rate than healthcare worker (46.15% vs 35.38% and 85.71% vs 46.42 %) respectively. CA-MRSA showed higher resistance to beta lactam antibiotics, while HA-MRSA showed higher multidrug resistance. Males of both MRSA types (CA-MRSA and HA-MRSA) carried higher isolate rates than females (38.46% and 15.87%) respectively. The higher rates of CA-MRSA and HC-MRSA isolates were 64.29% and 22.54% at ages of >40-50 and >20-30 years, respectively. PCR analysis detected nuc and mecA genes in 100% of both MRSA types, also, the genes arcA lukS/F-pvl and lukE-lukD were detected at high rates (30.3%, 42.42% and 33.33%), respectively
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References
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Hantoosh. (2022). Nasal Carriage of Vancomycin-and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus among Intermediate Students of Urban and Rural Schools of Muthanna Province in Iraq. J. Pharm. Sci ,31(1),102-108.
Hasmukharay K, Ngoi S. T, Saedon, N. I, Tank. M., Khor H. M, Chin, A. V, Ponnampalavanar S. S. L. S. (2023). Evaluation of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacteremia: Epidemiology, clinical characteristics, and outcomes in the older patients in a tertiary teaching hospital in Malaysia. BMC Infectious Diseases.23(1), 1-11.
Humphreys H, Fitzpatick F, Harvey B. J.(2015). Gender differences in rates of carriage and bloodstream infection caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: are they real, do they matter and why. Clin. Infect. Dis ,61(11),1708-1714.
Hussein N, Salih R. S, Rasheed N. A.(2019). Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in hospitals and community in Duhok, Kurdistan region of Iraq. J. Glob. Infec Dis ,6(2),e89636.
Hussein N. R., Assafi M. S, Ijaz T.( 2017). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nasal colonisation amongst healthcare workers in Kurdistan Region, Iraq. Journal of global antimicrobial resistance, 9, 78-81.
Ibab M Atef S. (2008). Molecular characteristic of Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus removed from outpatient clinic in Riyadh Saudi Arabia. Saudi. Med. J ,30(5), 611 - 617.
Ibrahim M. S, Khalid H. M, Mero W. M.(2020).Molecular characterization of some virulence genes and antibiotic susceptibility pattern among uropathogenic Escherichia coli Isolated from patient in Zakho City/Iraq. Zanco j. pure appl . Sci ,32(2),167-177.
Jarraud S, Mougel C, Thioulouse J, Lina G, Meuhnier H, Forey F. (2002). Relationship between Staphylococcus aureus genetic background, virulence factors, agr groups (alleles), and human disease. Infect Immun, 70,631–41.
Karimzadeh R, Ghassab R. K. (2022). Identification of nuc nuclease and sea enterotoxin genes in Staphylococcus aureus isolates from nasal mucosa of burn hospital staff: a cross-sectional study. New Microbes New Infect,. 47,100992.
Khasawneh A, Himsawi N, Abu-Raideh J, Salameh M. A, Al-Tamimi M, Mahmoud S. A. H, Saleh T.(2020). Status of biofilm-forming genes among Jordanian nasal carriers of methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Iran. Biomed J,24(6),386.
Koosha R. Z , Hosseini H. M ,Aghdam E. M, Tajandareh S. G , Fooladi A. A. I. (2016). Distribution of tsst-1 and mecA genes in Staphylococcus aureus isolated from clinical specimens. Jundishapur J. Microbiol ,9:(3), e29057.
Koupahi, H., Jahromy, S. H., Rahbar, M. (2016). Evaluation of different phenotypic and genotypic methods for detection of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Iranian journal of pathology, 11(4), 370.
Lakhundi S, Zhang K. (2018). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: molecular characterization, evolution and epidemiology. Clin Microbiol Rev,31(4), e00020-18.
Mazaal Y, Ibrahim H, Mater A. (2021)..Molecular detection of Nuc and sea genes of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from cow and sheep meat in Basrah city. Basra J. Vet. Res ,20(1),138-147.
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Nawrotek, P., Karakulska, J., Fijałkowski, K. (2018). The Staphylococcal Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL). In Pet-To-Man Travelling Staphylococci. Academic Press, 117-125..
Neopane P,Nepal H. P, Shrestha R,Uehara O, Abiko, Y.(2018). In vitro biofilm formation by Staphylococcus aureus isolated from wounds of hospital-admitted patients and their association with antimicrobial resistance. Int. J. Gen. Med ,11, 25-32.
Oksuz L, Dupieux C, Tristan A, Bes M, Etienne J, Gurler N. (2013).The high diversity of MRSA clones detected in a university hospital in Istanbul. Int. J. Health Sci ,10(12),1740–5.
Otto, M. (2013). Coagulase‐negative staphylococci as reservoirs of genes facilitating MRSA infection: Staphylococcal commensal species such as Staphylococcus epidermidis are being recognized as important sources of genes promoting MRSA colonization and virulence. Bioessays,35(1), 4-11.
Paitoonpong, L., Wong, C. K. B., Perl, T. M. (2013). Healthcare-associated infections. Infectious disease epidemiology theory and practice, 369-466.
Pathare, N. A., Tejani, S., Asogan, H., Al Mahruqi, G., Al Fakhri, S., Zafarulla, R., Pathare, A. V. (2015). Comparison of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus in healthy community hospital visitors [CA-MRSA] and hospital staff [HA-MRSA]. Mediterranean journal of hematology and infectious diseases, 7(1).
Saeed E. N, Al-Deen H. I. O, Merdaw M. A.(2014). Determine Nasal Carriage of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus MRSA in Young Adult College Student. Iraqi J. Pharm. Sci ,23(1),83-88.
Senok, A,Nassar, R., Kaklamanos, E. G., Belhoul, K., Abu Fanas, S., Nassar, M, Ehricht, R. (2020). Molecular characterization of Staphylococcus aureus isolates associated with nasal colonization and environmental contamination in academic dental clinics. Microbial Drug Resistance,26(6),661-669.
Taha A. E, Al-Ruwaili N. M, El-Masry E. A, Saad A. E, Taher I.(2022). A . MRSA as an indicator of infection control measures in Turaif General Hospital, Northern Area-Saudi Arabia. J Infect Dev Ctries ,16(06),1037-1044.
Tajik S, Najar-Peerayeh S, Bakhshi B, Golmohammadi R.(2019). Molecular characterization of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Iranian burn patients. Iran. J. Pathol ,14(4),284.
Tarzi S, Kennedy P, Stone S, Evans M. (2001). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: psychological impact of hospitalization and isolation in an older adult population. Journal of Hospital Infection,49(4), 250-254.
Tiwari, H. K., Sen, M. R. (2006). Emergence of vancomycin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) from a tertiary care hospital from northern part of India. BMC Infectious diseases, 6,1-6.
Xie X, Bao Y, Ouyang N, Dai X, Pan K, Chen B, Huang S. (2016). Molecular epidemiology and characteristic of virulence gene of community-acquired and hospital-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates in Sun Yat-sen Memorial hospital, Guangzhou, Southern China. BMC Infect. Dis ,16(1),1-10.
Yimana, M., Tesfaye, J. (2022). Isolation, identification and antimicrobial profile of methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus from bovine mastitis in and around Adama, Central Ethiopia. Veterinary Medicine and Science, 8(6), 2576-2584.
Zhang K, McClure JA, Elsayed S, Louie T, Conly JM.( 2005).Novel multiplex PCR assay for characterization and concomitant subtyping of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec types I to V in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Clin Microbiol, 43(10),5026–33.
Afroz, S., Kobayashi, N., Nagashima, S., Alam, M. M., ABM, B. H., Rahman, M. A., Hossain, M. A. (2008). Genetic characterization of Staphylococcus aureus isolates carrying Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes in Bangladesh. Japanese journal of infectious diseases, 61(5), 393-396.
Akpaka P. E, Kissoon S , Swanston W. H Monteil M. (2006). Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from Trinidad & Tobago. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials,5(1),1-6.
Al Zebary M. K, Yousif S. Y, Assafi M. S. (2017). The prevalence, molecular characterization, and antimicrobial susceptibility of isolated from impetigo cases in Duhok, Iraq. The Open Dermatology Journal, 11(1).
Algammal A. M, Hetta H. F, Elkelish D. H. H.,Hozzein W. N ,Batiha G. E. S, Mabrok, M. A.(2020). Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): one health perspective approach to the bacterium epidemiology, virulence factors, antibiotic-resistance, and zoonotic impact. Infection and Drug ResistancE,3255-3265.
AL-Mola S. G. J, AL-Hasso M. Z, Al-Badrani A. Y, Ibrahim Q. Y.(2019). Resistance of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from nasal of hospital staff and patients against antibiotics J. Bs. Edu. R.15, 1595-1612.
Aminu M, Usman-Sani H, Usman M. A .(2014). Characterization and determination of antibiotic susceptibility pattern of bacteria isolated from some fomites in a teaching hospital in northern Nigeria J. Microbiol. Res ,8(8),814-818.
Assafi M. S, Mohammed R. Q, Hussein N. R. (2015). Nasal carriage rates of Staphylococcus aureus and CA-methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus among university students. Int J Microbiol Res ,5(4),123-127.
Bae J, Jin H, Kim J, Park M, Lee J, Kim S. (2021). Molecular Characteristics and Exotoxins of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Biomed. Sci, Lett 27(4), 195-207
Bale M.(2021). Molecular Characterization of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Isolated from Blood Samples of Patients Attending Selected Hospitals in Ilorin, Nigeria, Doctoral dissertation, Kwara State University Nigeria ,1-24.
Boncompain C. A, Suárez C. A, Morbidoni H. R. (2017). Staphylococcus aureus nasal carriage in health care workers: First report from a major public hospital in Argentina. Revista Argentina de microbiologia, 49(2), 125-131.
Chen Y,Sun L ,Ba X Jiang S, Zhuang H, Zhu F u Y. (2022). Epidemiology, evolution, and cryptic susceptibility of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in China: a whole-genome-based survey. Clin Microbiol Infect ,28(1), 85-92.
Cheung G. Y, Bae J. S, Otto M .(2021). Pathogenicity and virulence of Staphylococcus aureus. J Virol ., 12(1),547-569.
Choo E. J.(2017). Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in nosocomial infections. J. Infect. Chemother , 49(2), 158-159.
Cikman A, Aydin M, Cunha B, Karakecili F, Kurtoglu M. G, Yuksekkaya S, Ozekinci .(2019). Absence of the mecC gene in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from various clinical samples: The first multi-centered study in Turkey. Infect. Public Health ,12(4),528-533.
CLSI. (2021). Performance standards for Antimicrobial susceptibility Testing. 31st ed. CLSI supplement M100. Clinical and laboratory Institute.
Dayan, G. H., Mohamed, N., Scully, I. L., Cooper, D., Begier, E., Eiden, J., Anderson, A. S. (2016). Staphylococcus aureus: the current state of disease, pathophysiology and strategies for prevention. Expert review of vaccines, 15(11), 1373-1392.
Dilnessa, T., Bitew, A. (2016). Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from clinical samples at Yekatit 12 Hospital Medical College, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. BMC infectious diseases, 16, 1-9.
Dancer S. (2008).Importance of the environment in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus acquisition: the case for hospital cleaning. Lancet Infect Dis,8(2) , 101-113.
Elhassan M. M, Ozbak H. A, Hemeg H. A, Elmekki M. A, Ahmed L. M .(2015). Absence of the mecA gene in methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from different clinical specimens in Shendi City, Sudan. Biomed Res, Int,vol 2015,1-5.
Emilda, J. V, Kumari J, Shenoy M. S,Vidyalakshmi K, Bhat K. G.(2016). Comparison of Community-associated methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) and healthcare-associated MRSA (HA-MRSA) infections in Mangalore, South India. Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical Sciences,7(4), 2008-2013.
Hadyeh E, Azmi K. Seir R. A, Abdellatief I, Abdeen Z. (2016). Molecular characterization of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus in west bank-palestine. Public Health Front ,7,130.
Hantoosh. (2022). Nasal Carriage of Vancomycin-and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus among Intermediate Students of Urban and Rural Schools of Muthanna Province in Iraq. J. Pharm. Sci ,31(1),102-108.
Hasmukharay K, Ngoi S. T, Saedon, N. I, Tank. M., Khor H. M, Chin, A. V, Ponnampalavanar S. S. L. S. (2023). Evaluation of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacteremia: Epidemiology, clinical characteristics, and outcomes in the older patients in a tertiary teaching hospital in Malaysia. BMC Infectious Diseases.23(1), 1-11.
Humphreys H, Fitzpatick F, Harvey B. J.(2015). Gender differences in rates of carriage and bloodstream infection caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: are they real, do they matter and why. Clin. Infect. Dis ,61(11),1708-1714.
Hussein N, Salih R. S, Rasheed N. A.(2019). Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in hospitals and community in Duhok, Kurdistan region of Iraq. J. Glob. Infec Dis ,6(2),e89636.
Hussein N. R., Assafi M. S, Ijaz T.( 2017). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nasal colonisation amongst healthcare workers in Kurdistan Region, Iraq. Journal of global antimicrobial resistance, 9, 78-81.
Ibab M Atef S. (2008). Molecular characteristic of Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus removed from outpatient clinic in Riyadh Saudi Arabia. Saudi. Med. J ,30(5), 611 - 617.
Ibrahim M. S, Khalid H. M, Mero W. M.(2020).Molecular characterization of some virulence genes and antibiotic susceptibility pattern among uropathogenic Escherichia coli Isolated from patient in Zakho City/Iraq. Zanco j. pure appl . Sci ,32(2),167-177.
Jarraud S, Mougel C, Thioulouse J, Lina G, Meuhnier H, Forey F. (2002). Relationship between Staphylococcus aureus genetic background, virulence factors, agr groups (alleles), and human disease. Infect Immun, 70,631–41.
Karimzadeh R, Ghassab R. K. (2022). Identification of nuc nuclease and sea enterotoxin genes in Staphylococcus aureus isolates from nasal mucosa of burn hospital staff: a cross-sectional study. New Microbes New Infect,. 47,100992.
Khasawneh A, Himsawi N, Abu-Raideh J, Salameh M. A, Al-Tamimi M, Mahmoud S. A. H, Saleh T.(2020). Status of biofilm-forming genes among Jordanian nasal carriers of methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Iran. Biomed J,24(6),386.
Koosha R. Z , Hosseini H. M ,Aghdam E. M, Tajandareh S. G , Fooladi A. A. I. (2016). Distribution of tsst-1 and mecA genes in Staphylococcus aureus isolated from clinical specimens. Jundishapur J. Microbiol ,9:(3), e29057.
Koupahi, H., Jahromy, S. H., Rahbar, M. (2016). Evaluation of different phenotypic and genotypic methods for detection of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Iranian journal of pathology, 11(4), 370.
Lakhundi S, Zhang K. (2018). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: molecular characterization, evolution and epidemiology. Clin Microbiol Rev,31(4), e00020-18.
Mazaal Y, Ibrahim H, Mater A. (2021)..Molecular detection of Nuc and sea genes of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from cow and sheep meat in Basrah city. Basra J. Vet. Res ,20(1),138-147.
McClure J. A, Conly J. M, Lau V, Elsayed S, Louie T, Hutchins W, Zhang K .(2006). Novel multiplex PCR assay for detection of the Staphylococcal virulence marker Panton-Valentine leukocidin genes and simultaneous discrimination of methicillin-susceptible from-resistant Staphylococci. J. Clin. Microbiol ,44(3),1141-1144.
Moremi, N., Claus, H., Vogel, U., Mshana, S. E. (2019). The role of patients and healthcare workers Staphylococcus aureus nasal colonization in occurrence of surgical site infection among patients admitted in two centers in Tanzania. Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control, 8, 1-7.
Nawrotek, P., Karakulska, J., Fijałkowski, K. (2018). The Staphylococcal Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL). In Pet-To-Man Travelling Staphylococci. Academic Press, 117-125..
Neopane P,Nepal H. P, Shrestha R,Uehara O, Abiko, Y.(2018). In vitro biofilm formation by Staphylococcus aureus isolated from wounds of hospital-admitted patients and their association with antimicrobial resistance. Int. J. Gen. Med ,11, 25-32.
Oksuz L, Dupieux C, Tristan A, Bes M, Etienne J, Gurler N. (2013).The high diversity of MRSA clones detected in a university hospital in Istanbul. Int. J. Health Sci ,10(12),1740–5.
Otto, M. (2013). Coagulase‐negative staphylococci as reservoirs of genes facilitating MRSA infection: Staphylococcal commensal species such as Staphylococcus epidermidis are being recognized as important sources of genes promoting MRSA colonization and virulence. Bioessays,35(1), 4-11.
Paitoonpong, L., Wong, C. K. B., Perl, T. M. (2013). Healthcare-associated infections. Infectious disease epidemiology theory and practice, 369-466.
Pathare, N. A., Tejani, S., Asogan, H., Al Mahruqi, G., Al Fakhri, S., Zafarulla, R., Pathare, A. V. (2015). Comparison of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus in healthy community hospital visitors [CA-MRSA] and hospital staff [HA-MRSA]. Mediterranean journal of hematology and infectious diseases, 7(1).
Saeed E. N, Al-Deen H. I. O, Merdaw M. A.(2014). Determine Nasal Carriage of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus MRSA in Young Adult College Student. Iraqi J. Pharm. Sci ,23(1),83-88.
Senok, A,Nassar, R., Kaklamanos, E. G., Belhoul, K., Abu Fanas, S., Nassar, M, Ehricht, R. (2020). Molecular characterization of Staphylococcus aureus isolates associated with nasal colonization and environmental contamination in academic dental clinics. Microbial Drug Resistance,26(6),661-669.
Taha A. E, Al-Ruwaili N. M, El-Masry E. A, Saad A. E, Taher I.(2022). A . MRSA as an indicator of infection control measures in Turaif General Hospital, Northern Area-Saudi Arabia. J Infect Dev Ctries ,16(06),1037-1044.
Tajik S, Najar-Peerayeh S, Bakhshi B, Golmohammadi R.(2019). Molecular characterization of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Iranian burn patients. Iran. J. Pathol ,14(4),284.
Tarzi S, Kennedy P, Stone S, Evans M. (2001). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: psychological impact of hospitalization and isolation in an older adult population. Journal of Hospital Infection,49(4), 250-254.
Tiwari, H. K., Sen, M. R. (2006). Emergence of vancomycin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) from a tertiary care hospital from northern part of India. BMC Infectious diseases, 6,1-6.
Xie X, Bao Y, Ouyang N, Dai X, Pan K, Chen B, Huang S. (2016). Molecular epidemiology and characteristic of virulence gene of community-acquired and hospital-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates in Sun Yat-sen Memorial hospital, Guangzhou, Southern China. BMC Infect. Dis ,16(1),1-10.
Yimana, M., Tesfaye, J. (2022). Isolation, identification and antimicrobial profile of methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus from bovine mastitis in and around Adama, Central Ethiopia. Veterinary Medicine and Science, 8(6), 2576-2584.
Zhang K, McClure JA, Elsayed S, Louie T, Conly JM.( 2005).Novel multiplex PCR assay for characterization and concomitant subtyping of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec types I to V in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Clin Microbiol, 43(10),5026–33.
Published
2023-11-16
How to Cite
MOHAMMED, R. Q., KHALID, H. M., & MERO, W. M. S. (2023). COMPARISON OF HEALTHCARE AND COMMUNITY ASSOCIATED METHCILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS USING PHENOTYPIC AND MOLECULAR ASSAYS IN HOSPITALS OF DUHOK PROVINCE, IRAQ. Journal of Duhok University, 26(2), 381-394. https://doi.org/10.26682/sjuod.2023.26.2.33
Section
Pure and Engineering Sciences
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